CHAPTER I
No one can doubt that the maigstrate ought greatly to interest himselfin the care of youth; for where it is neglected it is hurtful to thecity, for every state ought to be governed according to its particularnature; for the form and manners of each government are peculiar toitself; and these, as they originally established it, so they usuallystill preserve it. For instance, democratic forms and manners ademocracy; oligarchic, an oligarchy: but, universally, the bestmanners produce the best government. Besides, as in every business andart there are some things which men are to learn first and be madeaccustomed to, which are necessary to perform their several works; soit is evident that the same thing is necessary in the practice ofvirtue. As there is one end in view in every city, it is evident thateducation ought to be one and the same in each; and that this shouldbe a common care, and not the individual's, as it now is, when everyone takes care of his own children separately; and their instructionsare particular also, each person teaching them as they please; butwhat ought to be engaged in ought to be common to all. Besides, no oneought to think that any citizen belongs to him in particular, but tothe state in general; for each one is a part of the state, and it isthe natural duty of each part to regard the good of the whole: and forthis the Lacedaemonians may be praised; for they give the greatestattention to education, and make it public. It is evident, then, thatthere should be laws concerning education, and that it should bepublic.
CHAPTER II
What education is, and how children ought to be instructed, is whatshould be well known; for there are doubts concerning the business ofit, as all people do not agree in those things they would have a childtaught, both with respect to their improvement in virtue and a happylife: nor is it clear whether the object of it should be to improvethe reason or rectify the morals. From the present mode of educationwe cannot determine with certainty to which men incline, whether toinstruct a child in what will be useful to him in life; or what tendsto virtue, and what is excellent: for all these things have theirseparate defenders. As to virtue, there is no particular [1337b] inwhich they all agree: for as all do not equally esteem all virtues, itreasonably follows that they will not cultivate the same. It isevident that what is necessary ought to be taught to all: but thatwhich is necessary for one is not necessary for all; for there oughtto be a distinction between the employment of a freeman and a slave.The first of these should be taught everything useful which will notmake those who know it mean. Every work is to be esteemed mean, andevery art and every discipline which renders the body, the mind, orthe understanding of freemen unfit for the habit and practice ofvirtue: for which reason all those arts which tend to deform the bodyare called mean, and all those employments which are exercised forgain; for they take off from the freedom of the mind and render itsordid. There are also some liberal arts which are not improper forfreemen to apply to in a certain degree; but to endeavour to acquire aperfect skill in them is exposed to the faults I have just mentioned;for there is a great deal of difference in the reason for which anyone does or learns anything: for it is not illiberal to engage in itfor one's self, one's friend, or in the cause of virtue; while, at thesame time, to do it for the sake of another may seem to be acting thepart of a servant and a slave. The mode of instruction which nowprevails seems to partake of both parts.
CHAPTER III
There are four things which it is usual to teach children--reading,gymnastic exercises, and music, to which (in the fourth place) someadd painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular usein life, and gymnastic exercises, as productive of courage. As tomusic, some persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sakeof pleasure: but those who originally made it part of education didit because, as has been already said, nature requires that we shouldnot only be properly employed, but to be able to enjoy leisurehonourably: for this (to repeat what I have already said) is of allthings the principal. But, though both labour and rest arenecessary, yet the latter is preferable to the first; and by all meanswe ought to learn what we should do when at rest: for we ought not toemploy that time at play; for then play would be the necessarybusiness of our lives. But if this cannot be, play is more necessaryfor those who labour than those who are at rest: for he who laboursrequires relaxation; which play will supply: for as labour is attendedwith pain and continued exertion, it is necessary that playshould be introduced, under proper regulations, as a medicine: forsuch an employment of the mind is a relaxation to it, and eases withpleasure. [1338a] Now rest itself seems to partake of pleasure, ofhappiness, and an agreeable life: but this cannot be theirs wholabour, but theirs who are at rest; for he who labours, labours forthe sake of some end which he has not: but happiness is an end whichall persons think is attended with pleasure and not with pain: butall persons do not agree in making this pleasure consist in the samething; for each one has his particular standard, correspondent to hisown habits; but the best man proposes the best pleasure, and thatwhich arises from the noblest actions. But it is evident, that to livea life of rest there are some things which a man must learn and beinstructed in; and that the object of this learning and thisinstruction centres in their acquisition: but the learning andinstruction which is given for labour has for its object other things;for which reason the ancients made music a part of education; not as athing necessary, for it is not of that nature, nor as a thing useful,as reading, in the common course of life, or for managing of a family,or for learning anything as useful in public life. Painting also seemsuseful to enable a man to judge more accurately of the productions ofthe finer arts: nor is it like the gymnastic exercises, whichcontribute to health and strength; for neither of these things do wesee produced by music; there remains for it then to be the employmentof our rest, which they had in view who introduced it; and, thinkingit a proper employment for freemen, to them they allotted it; as Homersings:
"How right to call Thalia to the feast:" and of some others hesays:
"The bard was call'd, to ravish every ear:"
and, in another place, he makes Ulysses say the happiest part of man'slife is
"When at the festal board, in order plac'd, They hear the song."
It is evident, then, that there is a certain education in which achild may be instructed, not as useful nor as necessary, but as nobleand liberal: but whether this is one or more than one, and of whatsort they are, and how to be taught, shall be considered hereafter: weare now got so far on our way as to show that we have the testimony ofthe ancients in our favour, by what they have delivered down uponeducation--for music makes this plain. Moreover, it is necessary toinstruct children in what is useful, not only on account of its beinguseful in itself, as, for instance, to learn to read, but also as themeans of acquiring other different sorts of instruction: thus theyshould be instructed in painting, not only to prevent their beingmistaken in purchasing pictures, or in buying or selling of vases, butrather as it makes [1338b] them judges of the beauties of the humanform; for to be always hunting after the profitable ill agrees withgreat and freeborn souls. As it is evident whether a boy should befirst taught morals or reasoning, and whether his body or hisunderstanding should be first cultivated, it is plain that boys shouldbe first put under the care of the different masters of the gymnasticarts, both to form their bodies and teach them their exercises.
CHAPTER IV
Now those states which seem to take the greatest care of theirchildren's education, bestow their chief attention on wrestling,though it both prevents the increase of the body and hurts the form ofit. This fault the Lacedaemonians did not fall into, for they madetheir children fierce by painful labour, as chiefly useful to inspirethem with courage: though, as we have already often said, this isneither the only thing nor the principal thing necessary to attend to;and even with respect to this they may not thus attain their end; forwe do not find either in other animals, or other nations, that couragenecessarily attends the most cruel, but rather the milder, and thosewho have the dispositions of lions: for there are many people who areeager both to kill men and to devour human flesh, as the Achaeans andHeniochi in Pontus, and many others in Asia, some of whom are as bad,others worse than these, who indeed live by tyranny, but are men of nocourage. Nay, we know that the Lacedaemonians themselves, while theycontinued those painful labours, and were superior to all others(though now they are inferior to many, both in war and gymnasticexercises), did not acquire their superiority by training their youthto these exercises, but because those who were disciplined opposedthose who were not disciplined at all. What is fair and honourableought then to take place in education of what is fierce and cruel: forit is not a wolf, nor any other wild beast, which will brave any nobledanger, but rather a good man. So that those who permit boys to engagetoo earnestly in these exercises, while they do not take care toinstruct them in what is necessary to do, to speak the real truth,render them mean and vile, accomplished only in one duty of a citizen,and in every other respect, as reason evinces, good for nothing. Norshould we form our judgments from past events, but from what we see atpresent: for now they have rivals in their mode of education, whereasformerly they had not. That gymnastic exercises are useful, and inwhat manner, is admitted; for during youth it is very proper to gothrough a course of those which are most gentle, omitting that violentdiet and those painful exercises which are prescribed as necessary;that they may not prevent the growth of the body: and it is no smallproof that they have this effect, that amongst the Olympic candidateswe can scarce find two or three who have gained a victory both whenboys and men: because the necessary exercises they went through whenyoung deprived them of their strength. When they have allotted threeyears from the time of puberty to other parts of education, they arethen of a proper age to submit to labour and a regulated diet; for itis impossible for the mind and body both to labour at the same time,as they are productive of contrary evils to each other; the labour ofthe body preventing the progress of the mind, and the mind of thebody.
CHAPTER V
With respect to music we have already spoken a little in a doubtfulmanner upon this subject. It will be proper to go over again moreparticularly what we then said, which may serve as an introduction towhat any other person may choose to offer thereon; for it is no easymatter to distinctly point out what power it has, nor on what accountsone should apply it, whether as an amusement and refreshment, as sleepor wine; as these are nothing serious, but pleasing, and the killersof care, as Euripides says; for which reason they class in the sameorder and use for the same purpose all these, namely, sleep, wine, andmusic, to which some add dancing; or shall we rather suppose thatmusic tends to be productive of virtue, having a power, as thegymnastic exercises have to form the body in a certain way, toinfluence the manners so as to accustom its professors to rejoicerightly? or shall we say, that it is of any service in the conduct oflife, and an assistant to prudence? for this also is a third propertywhich has been attributed to it. Now that boys are not to beinstructed in it as play is evident; for those who learn don't play,for to learn is rather troublesome; neither is it proper to permitboys at their age to enjoy perfect leisure; for to cease to improve isby no means fit for what is as yet imperfect; but it may be thoughtthat the earnest attention of boys in this art is for the sake of thatamusement they will enjoy when they come to be men and completelyformed; but, if this is the case, why are they themselves to learn it,and not follow the practice of the kings of the Medes and Persians,who enjoy the pleasure of music by hearing others play, and beingshown its beauties by them; for of necessity those must be betterskilled therein who make this science their particular study andbusiness, than those who have only spent so much time at it as wassufficient just to learn the principles of it. But if this is a reasonfor a child's being taught anything, they ought also to learn the artof cookery, but this is absurd. The same doubt occurs if music has apower of improving the manners; for why should they on this accountthemselves learn it, and not reap every advantage of regulating thepassions or forming a judgment [1339b] on the merits of theperformance by hearing others, as the Lacedaemonians; for they,without having ever learnt music, are yet able to judge accuratelywhat is good and what is bad; the same reasoning may be applied ifmusic is supposed to be the amusement of those who live an elegant andeasy life, why should they learn themselves, and not rather enjoy thebenefit of others' skill. Let us here consider what is our belief ofthe immortal gods in this particular. Now we find the poets neverrepresent Jupiter himself as singing and playing; nay, we ourselvestreat the professors of these arts as mean people, and say that no onewould practise them but a drunkard or a buffoon. But probably we mayconsider this subject more at large hereafter. The first question is,whether music is or is not to make a part of education? and of thosethree things which have been assigned as its proper employment, whichis the right? Is it to instruct, to amuse, or to employ the vacanthours of those who live at rest? or may not all three be properlyallotted to it? for it appears to partake of them all; for play isnecessary for relaxation, and relaxation pleasant, as it is a medicinefor that uneasiness which arises from labour. It is admitted also thata happy life must be an honourable one, and a pleasant one too, sincehappiness consists in both these; and we all agree that music is oneof the most pleasing things, whether alone or accompanied with avoice; as Musseus says, "Music's the sweetest joy of man;" for whichreason it is justly admitted into every company and every happy life,as having the power of inspiring joy. So that from this any one maysuppose that it is necessary to instruct young persons in it; for allthose pleasures which are harmless are not only conducive to the finalend of life, but serve also as relaxations; and, as men are but rarelyin the attainment of that final end, they often cease from theirlabour and apply to amusement, with no further view than to acquirethe pleasure attending it. It is therefore useful to enjoy suchpleasures as these. There are some persons who make play and amusementtheir end, and probably that end has some pleasure annexed to it, butnot what should be; but while men seek the one they accept the otherfor it; because there is some likeness in human actions to the end;for the end is pursued for the sake of nothing else that attends it;but for itself only; and pleasures like these are sought for, not onaccount of what follows them, but on account of what has gone beforethem, as labour and grief; for which reason they seek for happiness inthese sort of pleasures; and that this is the reason any one mayeasily perceive. That music should be pursued, not on this accountonly, but also as it is very serviceable during the hours ofrelaxation from labour, probably no [1340a] one doubts; we should alsoinquire whether besides this use it may not also have another ofnobler nature--and we ought not only to partake of the common pleasurearising from it (which all have the sensation of, for music naturallygives pleasure, therefore the use of it is agreeable to all ages andall dispositions); but also to examine if it tends anything to improveour manners and our souls. And this will be easily known if we feelour dispositions any way influenced thereby; and that they are so isevident from many other instances, as well as the music at the Olympicgames; and this confessedly fills the soul with enthusiasm; butenthusiasm is an affection of the soul which strongly agitates thedisposition. Besides, all those who hear any imitations sympathisetherewith; and this when they are conveyed even without rhythm orverse. Moreover, as music is one of those things which are pleasant,and as virtue itself consists in rightly enjoying, loving, and hating,it is evident that we ought not to learn or accustom ourselves toanything so much as to judge right and rejoice in honourable mannersand noble actions. But anger and mildness, courage and modesty, andtheir contraries, as well as all other dispositions of the mind, aremost naturally imitated by music and poetry; which is plain byexperience, for when we hear these our very soul is altered; and hewho is affected either with joy or grief by the imitation of anyobjects, is in very nearly the same situation as if he was affected bythe objects themselves; thus, if any person is pleased with seeing astatue of any one on no other account but its beauty, it is evidentthat the sight of the original from whence it was taken would also bepleasing; now it happens in the other senses there is no imitation ofmanners; that is to say, in the touch and the taste; in the objects ofsight, a very little; for these are merely representations of things,and the perceptions which they excite are in a manner common to all.Besides, statues and paintings are not properly imitations of manners,but rather signs and marks which show the body is affected by somepassion. However, the difference is not great, yet young men ought notto view the paintings of Pauso, but of Polygnotus, or any otherpainter or statuary who expresses manners. But in poetry and musicthere are imitations of manners; and this is evident, for differentharmonies differ from each other so much by nature, that those whohear them are differently affected, and are not in the samedisposition of mind when one is performed as when another is; the one,for instance, occasions grief 13406 and contracts the soul, as themixed Lydian: others soften the mind, and as it were dissolve theheart: others fix it in a firm and settled state, such is the power ofthe Doric music only; while the Phrygian fills the soul withenthusiasm, as has been well described by those who have writtenphilosophically upon this part of education; for they bring examplesof what they advance from the things themselves. The same holds truewith respect to rhythm; some fix the disposition, others occasion achange in it; some act more violently, others more liberally. Fromwhat has been said it is evident what an influence music has over thedisposition of the mind, and how variously it can fascinate it: and ifit can do this, most certainly it is what youth ought to be instructedin. And indeed the learning of music is particularly adapted to theirdisposition; for at their time of life they do not willingly attend toanything which is not agreeable; but music is naturally one of themost agreeable things; and there seems to be a certain connectionbetween harmony and rhythm; for which reason some wise men held thesoul itself to be harmony; others, that it contains it.
CHAPTER VI
We will now determine whether it is proper that children should betaught to sing, and play upon any instrument, which we have beforemade a matter of doubt. Now, it is well known that it makes a greatdeal of difference when you would qualify any one in any art, for theperson himself to learn the practical part of it; for it is a thingvery difficult, if not impossible, for a man to be a good judge ofwhat he himself cannot do. It is also very necessary that childrenshould have some employment which will amuse them; for which reasonthe rattle of Archytas seems well contrived, which they give childrento play with, to prevent their breaking those things which are aboutthe house; for at their age they cannot sit still: this therefore iswell adapted to infants, as instruction ought to be their rattle asthey grow up; hence it is evident that they should be so taught musicas to be able to practise it. Nor is it difficult to say what isbecoming or unbecoming of their age, or to answer the objections whichsome make to this employment as mean and low. In the first place, itis necessary for them to practise, that they may be judges of the art:for which reason this should be done when they are young; but whenthey are grown older the practical part may be dropped; while theywill still continue judges of what is excellent in the art, and take aproper pleasure therein, from the knowledge they acquired of it intheir youth. As to the censure which some persons throw upon music, assomething mean and low, it is not difficult to answer that, if we willbut consider how far we propose those who are to be educated so as tobecome good citizens should be instructed in this art, [1341a] andwhat music and what rhythms they should be acquainted with; and alsowhat instruments they should play upon; for in these there is probablya difference. Such then is the proper answer to that censure: for itmust be admitted, that in some cases nothing can prevent music beingattended, to a certain degree, with the bad effects which are ascribedto it; it is therefore clear that the learning of it should neverprevent the business of riper years; nor render the body effeminate,and unfit for the business of war or the state; but it should bepractised by the young, judged of by the old. That children may learnmusic properly, it is necessary that they should not be employed inthose parts of it which are the objects of dispute between the mastersin that science; nor should they perform such pieces as are wonderedat from the difficulty of their execution; and which, from being firstexhibited in the public games, are now become a part of education; butlet them learn so much of it as to be able to receive proper pleasurefrom excellent music and rhythms; and not that only which music mustmake all animals feel, and also slaves and boys, but more. It istherefore plain what instruments they should use; thus, they shouldnever be taught to play upon the flute, or any other instrument whichrequires great skill, as the harp or the like, but on such as willmake them good judges of music, or any other instruction: besides, theflute is not a moral instrument, but rather one that will inflame thepassions, and is therefore rather to be used when the soul is to beanimated than when instruction is intended. Let me add also, thatthere is something therein which is quite contrary to what educationrequires; as the player on the flute is prevented from speaking: forwhich reason our forefathers very properly forbade the use of it toyouth and freemen, though they themselves at first used it; for whentheir riches procured them greater leisure, they grew more animated inthe cause of virtue; and both before and after the Median war theirnoble actions so exalted their minds that they attended to every partof education; selecting no one in particular, but endeavouring tocollect the whole: for which reason they introduced the flute also, asone of the instruments they were to learn to play on. At Lacedaemonthe choregus himself played on the flute; and it was so common atAthens that almost every freeman understood it, as is evident from thetablet which Thrasippus dedicated when he was choregus; but afterwardsthey rejected it as dangerous; having become better judges of whattended to promote virtue and what did not. For the same reason many ofthe ancient instruments were thrown aside, as the dulcimer and thelyre; as also those which were to inspire those who played on themwith pleasure, and which required a nice finger and great skill toplay well on. What the ancients tell us, by way of fable, of the fluteis indeed very rational; namely, that after Minerva had found it, shethrew it away: nor are they wrong who say that the goddess disliked itfor deforming the face of him who played thereon: not but that it ismore probable that she rejected it as the knowledge thereofcontributed nothing to the improvement of the mind. Now, we regardMinerva as the inventress of arts and sciences. As we disapprove of achild's being taught to understand instruments, and to play like amaster (which we would have confined to those who are candidates forthe prize in that science; for they play not to improve themselves invirtue, but to please those who hear them, and gratify theirimportunity); therefore we think the practice of it unfit for freemen;but then it should be confined to those who are paid for doing it; forit usually gives people sordid notions, for the end they have in viewis bad: for the impertinent spectator is accustomed to make themchange their music; so that the artists who attend to him regulatetheir bodies according to his motions.
CHAPTER VII
We are now to enter into an inquiry concerning harmony and rhythm;whether all sorts of these are to be employed in education, or whethersome peculiar ones are to be selected; and also whether we should givethe same directions to those who are engaged in music as part ofeducation, or whether there is something different from these two.Now, as all music consists in melody and rhythm, we ought not to beunacquainted with the power which each of these has in education; andwhether we should rather choose music in which melody prevails, orrhythm: but when I consider how many things have been well writtenupon these subjects, not only by some musicians of the present age,but also by some philosophers who are perfectly skilled in that partof music which belongs to education; we will refer those who desire avery particular knowledge therein to those writers, and shall onlytreat of it in general terms, without descending to particulars.Melody is divided by some philosophers, whose notions we approve of,into moral, practical, and that which fills the mind with enthusiasm:they also allot to each of these a particular kind of harmony whichnaturally corresponds therewith: and we say that music should not beapplied to one purpose only, but many; both for instruction andpurifying the soul (now I use the word purifying at present withoutany explanation, but shall speak more at large of it in my Poetics);and, in the third place, as an agreeable manner of spending the timeand a relaxation from the uneasiness of the mind. [1342a] It isevident that all harmonies are to be used; but not for all purposes;but the most moral in education: but to please the ear, when othersplay, the most active and enthusiastic; for that passion which is tobe found very strong in some souls is to be met with also in all; butthe difference in different persons consists in its being in a less orgreater degree, as pity, fear, and enthusiasm also; which latter is sopowerful in some as to overpower the soul: and yet we see thosepersons, by the application of sacred music to soothe their mind,rendered as sedate and composed as if they had employed the art of thephysician: and this must necessarily happen to the compassionate, thefearful, and all those who are subdued by their passions: nay, allpersons, as far as they are affected with those passions, admit of thesame cure, and are restored to tranquillity with pleasure. In the samemanner, all music which has the power of purifying the soul affords aharmless pleasure to man. Such, therefore, should be the harmony andsuch the music which those who contend with each other in the theatreshould exhibit: but as the audience is composed of two sorts ofpeople, the free and the well-instructed, the rude the mean mechanics,and hired servants, and a long collection of the like, there must besome music and some spectacles to please and soothe them; for as theirminds are as it were perverted from their natural habits, so also isthere an unnatural harmony, and overcharged music which isaccommodated to their taste: but what is according to nature givespleasure to every one, therefore those who are to contend upon thetheatre should be allowed to use this species of music. But ineducation ethic melody and ethic harmony should be used, which is theDoric, as we have already said, or any other which those philosopherswho are skilful in that music which is to be employed in educationshall approve of. But Socrates, in Plato's Republic, is very wrongwhen he [1342b] permits only the Phrygian music to be used as well asthe Doric, particularly as amongst other instruments he banishes theflute; for the Phrygian music has the same power in harmony as theflute has amongst the instruments; for they are both pathetic andraise the mind: and this the practice of the poets proves; for intheir bacchanal songs, or whenever they describe any violent emotionsof the mind, the flute is the instrument they chiefly use: and thePhrygian harmony is most suitable to these subjects. Now, that thedithyrambic measure is Phrygian is allowed by general consent; andthose who are conversant in studies of this sort bring many proofs ofit; as, for instance, when Philoxenus endeavoured to composedithyrambic music for Doric harmony, he naturally fell back again intoPhrygian, as being fittest for that purpose; as every one indeedagrees, that the Doric music is most serious, and fittest to inspirecourage: and, as we always commend the middle as being between the twoextremes, and the Doric has this relation with respect to otherharmonies, it is evident that is what the youth ought to be instructedin. There are two things to be taken into consideration, both what ispossible and what is proper; every one then should chiefly endeavourto attain those things which contain both these qualities: but this isto be regulated by different times of life; for instance, it is noteasy for those who are advanced in years to sing such pieces of musicas require very high notes, for nature points out to them those whichare gentle and require little strength of voice (for which reason somewho are skilful in music justly find fault with Socrates forforbidding the youth to be instructed in gentle harmony; as if, likewine, it would make them drunk, whereas the effect of that is torender men bacchanals, and not make them languid): these therefore arewhat should employ those who are grown old. Moreover, if there is anyharmony which is proper for a child's age, as being at the same timeelegant and instructive, as the Lydian of all others seems chiefly tobe-These then are as it were the three boundaries of education,moderation, possibility, and decorum.
THE END.
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